Abstract
This dissertation presents a comprehensive analysis of identity fraud perpetrated via internet-based platforms, examining its evolving nature, underlying mechanisms, victim profiles, and the multi-layered approaches required for effective mitigation. Through systematic literature synthesis, this study investigates the major forms of online identity fraud—including account takeover, synthetic identity creation, and deepfake-assisted impersonation—alongside the socio-technical factors that facilitate victimisation. The analysis reveals that online identity fraud has transformed into a sophisticated, globally pervasive criminal enterprise driven by the proliferation of digitally stored personally identifiable information, widespread adoption of online financial services, and the emergence of generative artificial intelligence technologies. Findings indicate that effective countermeasures necessitate an integrated response combining robust technical detection systems (increasingly powered by machine learning algorithms achieving greater than ninety per cent accuracy), strengthened legal frameworks capable of addressing jurisdictional complexities, and sustained public education programmes targeting vulnerable populations. The research concludes that treating identity fraud as a socio-technical phenomenon rather than a purely technical problem offers the most promising pathway toward meaningful reduction in victimisation rates and associated harms.
Introduction
The digital transformation of contemporary society has fundamentally altered how individuals conduct financial transactions, manage personal information, and interact with institutions. Whilst this transformation has delivered unprecedented convenience and efficiency, it has simultaneously created fertile ground for criminal exploitation. Identity fraud over the internet—defined as the theft, fabrication, or misuse of personal data to impersonate individuals for financial or other illicit gains—represents one of the most significant and rapidly evolving threats in the digital age.
The scale of this problem has reached alarming proportions. With massive quantities of personally identifiable information now stored in digital repositories, and with online banking becoming the default mode of financial interaction for billions of users globally, criminals have access to unprecedented opportunities for exploitation. The emergence of artificial intelligence-driven technologies, particularly deepfakes capable of generating convincing synthetic audio, video, and documentary evidence, has further complicated detection efforts and expanded the toolkit available to fraudsters (Zhang et al., 2025; Kryzhevsky, 2025).
The academic significance of studying online identity fraud stems from its interdisciplinary nature, sitting at the intersection of criminology, computer science, psychology, law, and management studies. Understanding this phenomenon requires engagement with routine activities theory, which explains how the convergence of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and absent guardianship creates opportunities for crime (Williams, 2016). Equally relevant are psychological frameworks explaining victim susceptibility and the persuasive techniques employed by fraudsters (Norris, Brookes and Dowell, 2019).
From a practical standpoint, the importance of this research cannot be overstated. Victims of online identity fraud experience not merely financial losses but also psychological distress, reputational damage, legal complications, and in cases involving medical identity theft, potentially life-threatening consequences from corrupted health records (Za, 2021; Basu and Mays, 2024). The economic burden extends beyond individual victims to encompass organisations that bear the costs of fraud prevention, detection, and remediation, as well as broader economies affected by diminished consumer confidence in digital services.
This dissertation addresses the contemporary manifestations of internet-based identity fraud through systematic examination of the scholarly literature. It traces the evolution of attack vectors from relatively simple phishing schemes to sophisticated, AI-enabled impersonation techniques, whilst critically analysing the effectiveness of current detection, prevention, and policy responses.
Aim and objectives
The principal aim of this dissertation is to provide a comprehensive analysis of identity fraud perpetrated over the internet, examining its forms, facilitating factors, impacts, and the effectiveness of current countermeasures.
To achieve this aim, the following specific objectives guide this investigation:
1. To identify and categorise the major forms and techniques of online identity fraud, including emerging AI-enabled attack vectors.
2. To examine the risk factors associated with victimisation and analyse the profile of vulnerable populations.
3. To evaluate the financial, psychological, and social impacts experienced by victims of internet-based identity fraud.
4. To critically assess current technical, organisational, and legal approaches to detection, prevention, and enforcement.
5. To synthesise evidence-based recommendations for a multi-layered response framework addressing the socio-technical nature of online identity fraud.
Methodology
This dissertation employs a literature synthesis methodology, systematically reviewing and integrating findings from peer-reviewed academic sources to construct a comprehensive understanding of internet-based identity fraud. This approach is particularly appropriate given the interdisciplinary nature of the phenomenon under investigation, which requires integration of perspectives from criminology, computer science, psychology, law, and management studies.
The literature search encompassed academic databases including those aggregating peer-reviewed journals across relevant disciplines. Search terms included combinations of “identity fraud,” “identity theft,” “online fraud,” “internet fraud,” “phishing,” “synthetic identity,” “deepfake fraud,” “account takeover,” and related terminology. The temporal scope prioritised recent publications (2015-2025) to capture contemporary developments, particularly the emergence of AI-enabled fraud techniques.
Inclusion criteria required that sources be peer-reviewed academic publications, governmental reports, or publications from recognised international organisations. Sources were excluded if they comprised non-academic websites, blogs, or publications lacking rigorous peer review. This approach ensured the evidential base met standards appropriate for academic discourse.
The synthesis process involved thematic analysis of identified literature, with findings organised according to the key dimensions of the research objectives: forms and techniques, victim profiles and risk factors, impacts, and countermeasures. Where sources presented conflicting findings, these conflicts were noted and critically examined. The methodology acknowledges the inherent limitation that literature synthesis cannot generate primary data but offers the advantage of integrating diverse perspectives into a coherent analytical framework.
Literature review
Forms and techniques of online identity fraud
The scholarly literature identifies several distinct forms of online identity fraud, each characterised by particular methods, targets, and objectives. Account takeover represents one of the most prevalent forms, involving the hijacking of existing legitimate accounts to redirect payments, access financial resources, or conduct fraudulent transactions whilst exploiting the established trust associated with the compromised identity (Za, 2021; Williams, 2016; Jakubiec, 2020). This form of fraud has grown alongside the proliferation of online accounts, with individuals now maintaining numerous digital identities across banking, social media, e-commerce, and governmental platforms.
Synthetic or fake identity fraud presents particularly significant detection challenges. This technique involves combining elements of real personal data—often obtained through data breaches—with fabricated information to create entirely new, fictional identities that do not correspond to actual individuals (Za, 2021; Zhang et al., 2025; Soomro et al., 2019). The hybrid nature of synthetic identities means that traditional verification methods, which typically check for correspondence with existing records, may fail to identify fraudulent activity. Criminals exploit synthetic identities to establish credit histories, obtain financial products, and conduct transactions before disappearing, leaving financial institutions to bear the losses.
The attack vectors facilitating these fraud types have evolved considerably. Phishing remains a foundational technique, with criminals crafting deceptive communications designed to trick users into revealing credentials, personal information, or financial details (Williams, 2016; Mohammad, Thabtah and McCluskey, 2015). Spear-phishing represents a more targeted variant, where attackers research specific individuals to craft highly personalised, convincing approaches. Pharming redirects users from legitimate websites to fraudulent replicas, whilst malware covertly captures keystrokes, credentials, and other sensitive data from infected devices (Guedes, Martins and Cardoso, 2022).
Social engineering—the manipulation of human psychology rather than technical systems—underpins many successful fraud attempts. Criminals exploit cognitive biases, emotional responses, and social norms to overcome victims’ natural caution. The effectiveness of these techniques is amplified by the abundance of personal information available through social media and data breaches, which enables criminals to construct highly convincing narratives.
Perhaps the most concerning recent development involves deepfake technology and generative artificial intelligence. These technologies now enable the creation of forged documents, synthetic images, and convincing audio-visual content capable of impersonating specific individuals (Zhang et al., 2025; Kryzhevsky, 2025; Papasavva et al., 2024). The implications extend beyond traditional fraud to encompass identity verification systems that rely on biometric data, video-based verification processes, and voice authentication. As generative AI capabilities continue advancing, the detection challenge intensifies accordingly.
Victim profiles and risk factors
Understanding who becomes victimised and why has attracted substantial scholarly attention. Research grounded in routine activities theory demonstrates that online behaviours significantly influence victimisation risk. Individuals who use public internet access points, engage with risky online content, participate in online auctions, and conduct heavy online banking activities face elevated odds of experiencing identity fraud (Williams, 2016; Basu and Mays, 2024; Guedes, Martins and Cardoso, 2022).
Beyond behavioural patterns, individual characteristics shape susceptibility. Low computer skills and limited digital literacy leave individuals poorly equipped to recognise phishing attempts, evaluate website legitimacy, or implement security practices. Socio-psychological traits, including trust, compliance with authority, and response to urgency or fear, influence how individuals react to fraudulent approaches. Criminals explicitly exploit these traits through carefully crafted persuasive messages designed to bypass rational evaluation (Danquah, Kani and Bibi, 2022; Norris, Brookes and Dowell, 2019; Kryzhevsky, 2025).
Certain populations face particularly elevated vulnerability. The elderly frequently possess less familiarity with digital technologies and may be more trusting of official-seeming communications. Additionally, elderly individuals often possess accumulated financial resources that make them attractive targets. Children, though they may lack financial resources, can have their identities stolen for long-term exploitation—synthetic identities built upon children’s stolen data may not be discovered until the child reaches adulthood and attempts to establish credit (Za, 2021; Jakubiec, 2020).
The psychological dimension of victimisation deserves particular attention. Research indicates that victims often experience shame and self-blame, which may delay reporting and compound psychological harm. The expectation that technology should be safe, combined with societal assumptions about fraud victims, creates a context where victimisation carries stigma.
Impacts of online identity fraud
The consequences of online identity fraud extend far beyond immediate financial losses. Whilst monetary harm represents the most quantifiable impact, research demonstrates that victims experience a constellation of adverse effects spanning financial, medical, legal, psychological, and reputational domains.
Financial impacts include direct losses from fraudulent transactions, but also indirect costs including time spent resolving the fraud, fees for credit monitoring services, legal expenses, and potentially elevated insurance premiums or interest rates resulting from damaged credit histories. For some victims, the financial consequences prove devastating, particularly those lacking resources to absorb losses or navigate complex resolution processes.
Medical identity theft presents uniquely serious risks. When criminals access healthcare using stolen identities, they may alter victims’ medical records with incorrect blood types, allergies, or conditions. This corruption of medical information can lead to dangerous treatment decisions if victims subsequently require healthcare, potentially resulting in life-threatening consequences (Za, 2021).
Legal problems frequently accompany identity fraud. Victims may find themselves facing debt collection proceedings for fraudulent accounts, criminal investigations for offences committed using their stolen identities, or difficulties proving their legitimate identity to governmental agencies. The burden of proof typically falls upon victims to demonstrate that fraudulent activity was not their own doing.
The psychological impact of identity fraud has received increasing scholarly attention. Norris, Brookes and Dowell (2019) systematically reviewed the psychology of internet fraud victimisation, finding that victims commonly experience anxiety, depression, anger, and diminished trust. The violation of personal identity—arguably one’s most fundamental possession—creates psychological harm distinct from property crimes. Reputational damage may compound these effects, particularly when fraud affects professional relationships or community standing (Za, 2021; Basu and Mays, 2024; Jakubiec, 2020).
Detection and technical countermeasures
The technical dimension of combating online identity fraud has attracted substantial research investment, particularly concerning the application of artificial intelligence and machine learning to detection. Contemporary detection systems analyse behavioural signals, textual patterns, and multimedia content to identify potentially fraudulent activity. Many models demonstrate impressive accuracy, with some achieving greater than ninety per cent detection rates on specific fraud types (Zhang et al., 2025; Kryzhevsky, 2025; Hanok and Shankaraiah, 2023; Mitchell and Sambasivam, 2025).
However, scholars caution that these accuracy figures may not generalise across evolving scam techniques. Fraudsters continuously adapt their methods in response to detection capabilities, creating an ongoing arms race. Models trained on historical fraud patterns may prove ineffective against novel approaches, particularly those leveraging emerging technologies such as deepfakes. The adversarial nature of this domain means that static detection approaches inevitably become obsolete (Zhang et al., 2025; Papasavva et al., 2024).
Technical controls recommended in the literature include strong authentication mechanisms, preferably multi-factor authentication combining something the user knows, possesses, and is. Continuous behavioural monitoring enables detection of anomalous activity patterns that may indicate account compromise, even when credentials have been successfully obtained by fraudsters. Anomaly detection systems applying machine learning to identify departures from established baselines show promise, though they must balance sensitivity against false positive rates that could impede legitimate users (Mohammad, Thabtah and McCluskey, 2015).
Organisational and management approaches
Research emphasises that effective response to identity fraud requires treating it as a socio-technical and management problem rather than a purely technical challenge. Soomro et al. (2019) conducted a systematic review of identity fraud management practices in the e-tail sector, finding that organisations most successful in combating fraud adopted integrated approaches encompassing technological, procedural, and human dimensions.
Organisational practices include staff training to recognise fraud attempts, clear escalation procedures for suspicious activity, regular security audits, and incident response planning. The human element remains critical—employees represent both potential vulnerabilities (through social engineering) and potential defenders (through vigilance and appropriate response). Management commitment to security culture, reflected in resource allocation and policy enforcement, correlates with fraud prevention effectiveness.
Legal frameworks and enforcement challenges
The legal dimension of combating online identity fraud presents significant challenges. Many jurisdictions have enacted specific identity theft and online fraud legislation, criminalising various forms of identity misuse and providing remedies for victims (Moise, 2015; Hasibuan and Syam, 2023). However, enforcement effectiveness is substantially hampered by the characteristics of online crime.
Anonymity features prominently among enforcement challenges. Criminals exploit anonymising technologies, pseudonymous accounts, and the inherent difficulty of attributing online activity to specific individuals. Cross-border jurisdiction compounds these difficulties—fraudsters may operate from jurisdictions with limited legal cooperation, weak enforcement capacity, or even state tolerance for cybercrime targeting foreign victims (Shulzhenko, 2020).
International cooperation mechanisms exist but frequently prove insufficient to address the speed and scale of online fraud. By the time mutual legal assistance requests progress through diplomatic channels, evidence may be lost, proceeds dispersed, and perpetrators relocated. The literature suggests that effective legal response requires both strengthened international cooperation and harmonisation of definitions and penalties across jurisdictions.
Guardianship, awareness, and education
Drawing upon routine activities theory, scholars highlight the critical role of “capable guardianship” in preventing victimisation. In the online context, guardianship takes multiple forms: national cybersecurity strategies establishing protective infrastructure, institutional practices safeguarding customer data, and individual awareness enabling self-protection (Za, 2021; Williams, 2016; Shulzhenko, 2020).
User education emerges as a consistently recommended intervention across the literature. Awareness programmes targeting recognition of phishing attempts, secure password practices, cautious information sharing, and appropriate response to suspected fraud can meaningfully reduce victimisation rates. However, the effectiveness of education depends upon its accessibility, cultural appropriateness, and ongoing updating to address emerging techniques.
Particular attention to vulnerable populations—including elderly individuals, children, and those with limited digital literacy—is warranted. Generic awareness campaigns may fail to reach or resonate with these groups, suggesting need for targeted interventions delivered through appropriate channels (Guedes, Martins and Cardoso, 2022).
Discussion
This analysis reveals online identity fraud as a complex, adaptive, and increasingly sophisticated criminal phenomenon that defies simplistic solutions. Several key findings merit extended discussion in relation to the stated research objectives.
Concerning the categorisation of fraud forms and techniques (Objective 1), the literature demonstrates clear evolution from relatively straightforward phishing schemes toward sophisticated, multi-vector attacks incorporating artificial intelligence. The emergence of deepfake technology represents a qualitative shift rather than merely incremental advancement. Whereas previous fraud techniques required criminals to exploit gaps in systems or human judgment, deepfakes enable direct fabrication of evidence—creating “proof” of identity that previously did not exist. This development fundamentally challenges authentication systems premised on the assumption that certain evidence types (live video, voice biometrics) are inherently difficult to forge. The implications extend beyond financial fraud to encompass potential subversion of legal proceedings, journalistic verification, and interpersonal trust.
The examination of risk factors and vulnerable populations (Objective 2) confirms the applicability of routine activities theory to online contexts whilst highlighting important nuances. Online behaviours do predict victimisation risk, but the relationship is mediated by individual characteristics and the broader socio-technical environment. Importantly, vulnerability should not be construed as victim-blaming—the moral responsibility for fraud rests entirely with perpetrators. However, understanding vulnerability enables targeted protective interventions and appropriate resource allocation.
The analysis of impacts (Objective 3) underscores that metrics focusing solely on financial losses substantially underestimate the true harm of identity fraud. The psychological, medical, legal, and reputational consequences documented in the literature represent significant harms that may persist long after financial matters are resolved. This broader understanding of harm should inform both individual support services and policy priorities.
Critical assessment of countermeasures (Objective 4) reveals both promise and limitation. Technical detection capabilities have advanced impressively, with machine learning models achieving high accuracy on defined tasks. However, the adversarial context—where criminals adapt in response to detection methods—means that accuracy claims require substantial qualification. A model achieving ninety-five per cent accuracy on historical fraud patterns may prove far less effective against novel techniques. This dynamic suggests that detection capability represents a continuous investment rather than a problem to be solved once.
The socio-technical framing advocated by Soomro et al. (2019) emerges as particularly valuable. Approaches treating identity fraud as purely technical tend toward technological solutionism—the assumption that technological problems require technological solutions. This framing neglects the human, organisational, and social dimensions that shape both vulnerability and effective response. The most robust approaches integrate technical controls with organisational practices, user education, and legal frameworks.
Legal enforcement remains the weakest element of current response frameworks. Despite legislative developments across jurisdictions, the fundamental challenges of anonymity and cross-border jurisdiction persist. International cooperation mechanisms have not kept pace with the globalised, instantaneous nature of online crime. This gap suggests need for innovative approaches—potentially including increased platform responsibility, international technical cooperation arrangements, and resources targeted at building enforcement capacity in jurisdictions serving as operational bases for fraudsters.
The synthesis of evidence-based recommendations (Objective 5) points toward multi-layered response frameworks combining:
First, technical controls comprising strong authentication, continuous behavioural monitoring, and adaptive detection systems updated through ongoing research investment. These controls should be designed recognising that any single measure may be circumvented, with defence-in-depth principles ensuring that multiple barriers protect sensitive transactions.
Second, organisational practices treating identity fraud as a management responsibility, with appropriate governance structures, staff training, incident response procedures, and security culture cultivation. Organisations holding customer data bear responsibility for its protection and should be held accountable for failures.
Third, user education delivered through accessible, culturally appropriate channels and regularly updated to address emerging techniques. Particular attention to vulnerable populations is warranted, with interventions designed based on evidence regarding effective risk communication.
Fourth, strengthened legal frameworks with enhanced international cooperation mechanisms, harmonised definitions and penalties, and potentially increased platform responsibility for fraud facilitated through their services.
Fifth, sustained research investment maintaining detection capability as fraudulent techniques evolve, whilst developing understanding of victim experiences and effective support interventions.
Conclusions
This dissertation has provided a comprehensive analysis of identity fraud perpetrated over the internet, addressing the five stated research objectives through systematic synthesis of scholarly literature.
Regarding the first objective, this research has identified and categorised major forms of online identity fraud including account takeover, synthetic identity creation, and emerging deepfake-assisted impersonation. The attack vectors facilitating these fraud types—phishing, social engineering, malware, and data breaches—have been examined alongside their evolution toward increasingly sophisticated, AI-enabled approaches.
The second objective has been addressed through analysis of risk factors and vulnerable populations. Evidence confirms that online behaviours, digital literacy, socio-psychological characteristics, and demographic factors shape victimisation risk, with elderly individuals and children identified as particularly vulnerable.
For the third objective, this analysis has documented the multi-dimensional impacts of online identity fraud encompassing financial losses, medical risks from corrupted records, legal complications, psychological distress, and reputational damage. This comprehensive impact profile demonstrates that metrics focused solely on monetary losses substantially underestimate true harm.
The fourth objective concerning assessment of countermeasures has been achieved through critical examination of technical detection systems, organisational practices, legal frameworks, and educational interventions. Whilst AI-based detection shows promise with some models achieving greater than ninety per cent accuracy, limitations regarding generalisation across evolving techniques have been noted. Legal enforcement remains challenged by anonymity and jurisdictional complexities.
The fifth objective has been addressed through synthesis of evidence-based recommendations for multi-layered response frameworks. The analysis concludes that treating identity fraud as a socio-technical phenomenon—rather than purely technical problem—offers the most promising pathway toward meaningful harm reduction.
The significance of these findings extends to academic, policy, and practical domains. Academically, this research contributes to interdisciplinary understanding of a phenomenon situated at the intersection of criminology, computer science, psychology, and law. For policymakers, the findings support investment in integrated response frameworks rather than singular interventions, with particular attention to international cooperation mechanisms that currently constitute the weakest response element. Practically, the analysis informs both organisational security practices and individual protective behaviours.
Future research should address several identified gaps. Longitudinal studies tracking the evolution of fraud techniques and detection effectiveness would enhance understanding of adversarial dynamics. Intervention research evaluating educational programme effectiveness, particularly for vulnerable populations, would inform resource allocation. Investigation of victim experiences and effective support mechanisms represents another priority, given the psychological and practical challenges facing fraud victims. Finally, research examining governance models for international cooperation in enforcement could inform policy development in this challenging domain.
Online identity fraud will likely remain a significant threat as digitalisation continues expanding and artificial intelligence capabilities advance. However, evidence-based, multi-layered responses offer genuine prospect for harm reduction, protecting individuals and institutions whilst maintaining the benefits of digital services that modern life increasingly requires.
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