Abstract
This dissertation examines gender dynamics in Cusco, Peru, tracing the evolution of gendered power relations from the Inca period through colonial and republican eras to contemporary transformations shaped by tourism, migration, and legal frameworks. Through a comprehensive literature synthesis, this study analyses how women’s ritual, economic, and political roles have been constructed, controlled, and contested across five centuries of Andean history. The research reveals that pre-Hispanic institutions such as the acllahuasi positioned women as essential actors in state ritual and political legitimacy, yet colonial reinterpretation reframed these roles within Spanish moral frameworks that justified female confinement and subordination. Contemporary Cusco demonstrates both continuity and change: tourism economies simultaneously empower Quechua women through income generation whilst reinforcing exoticised, gendered representations controlled by male intermediaries. Emerging phenomena such as woman Varayoc challenge entrenched patriarchal authority structures, yet structural inequalities, occupational segregation, and high rates of gender-based violence persist. The findings contribute to understanding how historical legacies intersect with modern economic and political forces to shape ongoing struggles for gender equality in Andean contexts.
Introduction
The Andean highlands of Peru, with Cusco as their historical and symbolic centre, present a compelling case study for understanding how gender relations are constituted through the intersection of indigenous traditions, colonial impositions, and contemporary socioeconomic forces. As the former capital of the Inca Empire and current hub of Peru’s tourism industry, Cusco occupies a unique position where pre-Hispanic cultural memories, colonial legacies, and modern globalisation converge to shape contemporary gender dynamics.
Gender in the Andean context has never existed as a static category but rather as a dynamic system of relationships embedded within broader structures of kinship, economy, ritual, and political authority. The Inca state institutionalised specific gendered roles that positioned women as central to religious practice and imperial legitimacy, whilst simultaneously controlling their mobility and labour. Spanish colonisation fundamentally transformed these arrangements, introducing European patriarchal norms, Catholic moral frameworks, and racialised hierarchies that reconfigured indigenous gender systems according to colonial logics. The republican period and subsequent twentieth-century developments further layered legal positivism, modernisation ideologies, and nationalist projects onto existing gender regimes.
Understanding these historical trajectories proves essential for analysing contemporary gender dynamics in Cusco, where tourism has emerged as the dominant economic sector. The region’s tourism industry relies heavily upon performances of indigenous authenticity, particularly by Quechua women whose weaving, dress, and cultural practices are marketed as emblematic of Andean tradition. This economic arrangement creates new opportunities for female income generation whilst simultaneously reinforcing gendered and racialised representations that may limit women’s autonomy and economic advancement.
This topic matters academically because it illuminates how gender operates not as an isolated variable but as a structuring principle embedded within multiple systems of power—ritual, legal, economic, and political. Socially and practically, the research addresses pressing contemporary concerns including gender-based violence, occupational segregation, and indigenous women’s rights that remain significant challenges in Peru and throughout Latin America. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has documented persistent inequalities affecting indigenous women in the region, whilst the United Nations Development Programme continues to highlight Peru’s gender gaps in economic participation and political representation (UNDP, 2023).
Aim and objectives
The primary aim of this dissertation is to analyse the historical evolution and contemporary manifestations of gender dynamics in Cusco, Peru, examining how pre-Hispanic, colonial, and modern forces have shaped gendered power relations in this Andean region.
To achieve this aim, the following objectives guide the research:
1. To trace the historical development of gendered institutions and practices from the Inca period through colonial and republican eras, identifying continuities and transformations in women’s ritual, economic, and political roles.
2. To analyse how colonial moral frameworks and legal systems reconfigured indigenous gender arrangements and established lasting patterns of gendered and racialised control.
3. To examine contemporary arenas where gender dynamics operate in Cusco, with particular attention to tourism economies, rural livelihoods, migration patterns, and local political authority.
4. To assess the extent to which modern developments offer new opportunities for women’s empowerment whilst potentially reproducing historical patterns of subordination.
5. To situate Cusco-specific findings within broader Peruvian and Andean patterns of gender inequality, occupational segregation, and gender-based violence.
Methodology
This dissertation employs a comprehensive literature synthesis methodology to examine gender dynamics in Cusco across historical and contemporary periods. Literature synthesis, also termed systematic narrative review, represents an established approach for integrating findings from diverse scholarly sources to develop coherent understanding of complex phenomena (Snyder, 2019). This methodology proves particularly appropriate for the present study given the multidisciplinary nature of the subject matter, which draws upon archaeology, ethnohistory, anthropology, sociology, and legal studies.
The literature search strategy incorporated peer-reviewed journal articles, academic monographs, and reports from recognised international organisations. Primary databases consulted included JSTOR, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar, with search terms including combinations of “Cusco,” “gender,” “women,” “Inca,” “colonial Peru,” “tourism,” “indigenous,” and “Andean.” Materials were selected based on relevance to the research objectives, methodological rigour, and scholarly credibility. The temporal scope encompasses publications from 1986 to 2025, capturing approximately four decades of scholarship on Andean gender studies.
Sources were evaluated according to criteria including peer-review status, author expertise, citation frequency, and alignment with established historiographical and anthropological frameworks. Particular attention was given to ethnographic studies conducted in Cusco and surrounding communities, archaeological analyses of Inca-period gender arrangements, and historical investigations of colonial and republican legal and moral regimes.
The synthesis process involved thematic coding of selected literature to identify recurring patterns, points of scholarly consensus, and areas of debate. Findings were organised according to the key dimensions emerging from the literature: ritual and state power, law and morality, rural livelihoods and migration, tourism and markets, and structural inequality and violence. This organisational framework enabled systematic comparison of historical patterns with contemporary dynamics whilst maintaining analytical coherence.
Limitations of this methodology include reliance upon existing published scholarship, which may reflect particular disciplinary biases or geographical concentrations within the Cusco region. Additionally, the synthesis approach necessarily involves interpretive judgements regarding the relative significance and reliability of different sources.
Literature review
Gender in the Inca state: ritual power and controlled mobility
Scholarship on pre-Hispanic Cusco reveals that gender operated as a fundamental organising principle of Inca statecraft, with women occupying essential yet tightly controlled positions within the imperial system. The institution of the acllahuasi (house of chosen women) represents the most extensively studied example of Inca gendered organisation. Within these state-controlled establishments, acllas (chosen women) and mamaconas (senior women) performed specialised ritual labour including weaving of ceremonial textiles, preparation of chicha (maize beer) for state ceremonies, and participation in religious observances (Chacaltana-Cortez, Mogrovejo and Moralejo, 2024).
Recent archaeological and ethnohistorical analysis has emphasised the mobility dimension of these gendered institutions. Acllas were not simply cloistered but were moved across the empire according to state requirements, revealing how the Inca administration exercised control over female bodies and labour as instruments of imperial integration. This controlled mobility illuminates the gendered dimensions of Inca expansion and administration, suggesting that women’s circulation functioned analogously to other forms of tribute and resource distribution that characterised Andean political economy (Chacaltana-Cortez, Mogrovejo and Moralejo, 2024).
Feminist archaeology has contributed important perspectives on how food preparation and feasting constituted arenas of gendered power. Gero (1992) argues that women’s roles in political feasts helped constitute emerging hierarchies in the Andes, with food preparation and service encoding female subordination whilst simultaneously positioning women as essential actors in political centralisation. Feasting events required women’s labour to produce the surplus food and drink that enabled rulers to fulfil reciprocity obligations and demonstrate legitimate authority. This analysis complicates simple narratives of female subordination by revealing how women’s work, whilst controlled, remained indispensable to the reproduction of political order.
Colonial transformations: moral regimes and the politics of representation
The Spanish conquest initiated fundamental transformations in Andean gender arrangements, as colonial authorities sought to impose European patriarchal norms and Catholic moral frameworks upon indigenous populations. Graubart (2000) demonstrates how early colonial chronicles reinterpreted Inca gendered institutions according to Spanish categories, with acllas reimagined as cloistered virgins analogous to European nuns. This representational strategy served colonial purposes by simultaneously acknowledging Inca civilisational achievements and justifying Spanish rule through claims to superior Christian morality.
The politics of representation extended beyond textual production to encompass legal regulation and moral policing of indigenous women’s sexuality. Colonial authorities instituted mechanisms for controlling female behaviour that reflected both Spanish patriarchal values and racialised assumptions about indigenous morality. Indigenous women who deviated from prescribed norms faced censure and punishment, whilst their conformity to colonial expectations was rewarded with limited protections and recognition within the imperial system (Graubart, 2000).
The transition from colonial to republican governance did not fundamentally disrupt these gendered moral regimes but rather reconstituted them according to new ideological frameworks. Bunt-MacRury (2022) examines rape trials in early twentieth-century Cuzco, revealing how legal positivism, virginity discourse, and racialised morality combined to shape indigenous and mestiza women’s access to justice. The analysis demonstrates that republican courts evaluated sexual assault claims according to criteria that privileged elite understandings of female honour and respectability, systematically disadvantaging indigenous women whose cultural practices and social positions rendered them suspect according to dominant moral standards.
Rural livelihoods, migration, and the transformation of local authority
Research on contemporary rural communities around Cusco illuminates how gender ideologies structure household labour, migration decisions, and access to positions of authority. Radcliffe (1986) provided foundational analysis of how gender relations intersected with peasant livelihood strategies and migration patterns. Women’s migration both followed and contested expected life-course patterns, as economic necessity sometimes required departures from traditional gender arrangements whilst gendered expectations continued to shape migration destinations, occupations, and return patterns.
More recent scholarship documents significant changes in women’s access to formal authority positions in Andean communities. Gutiérrez-Gómez et al. (2023) examine the emergence of woman Varayoc, holders of the Inca-derived rod of command that symbolises local authority. Their research demonstrates that women have begun to occupy offices once exclusively reserved for men, representing a notable departure from entrenched machismo in Andean communities. These woman Varayoc symbolically appropriate traditional markers of authority whilst navigating resistance from community members who view such roles as inherently masculine.
The phenomenon of woman Varayoc illustrates both possibilities and constraints facing women seeking expanded political participation in rural Andean contexts. Success requires not merely formal access to office but negotiation of deeply embedded cultural assumptions regarding appropriate gender roles. Women who assume authority positions must demonstrate competence whilst managing expectations that may simultaneously demand conformity to feminine ideals and performance of masculine authority (Gutiérrez-Gómez et al., 2023).
Tourism economies: opportunity, constraint, and the performance of tradition
Tourism has emerged as the dominant economic sector in Cusco, creating new arenas where gender, ethnicity, and class intersect in complex configurations. The Sacred Valley and surrounding communities have become sites of intensive tourist activity, with indigenous cultural practices transformed into commodities for visitor consumption. Within this economy, Quechua women occupy visible yet constrained positions as performers and producers of tradition.
Ypeij, Krah and Hout (2018) provide detailed ethnographic analysis of gender dynamics in the handicraft tourism sector. Quechua women weavers in communities such as Chinchero perform traditional Andean domesticity for tourists, demonstrating weaving techniques and wearing distinctive regional dress. Yet these same women depend economically upon mostly male, urban, Spanish-speaking tour guides who control tourist flows and negotiate commissions. This arrangement reinforces multiple hierarchies: male over female, urban over rural, Spanish-speaking over Quechua-speaking. Women’s visible cultural labour generates value that accrues disproportionately to male intermediaries.
De Oliveira (2022) extends this analysis through examination of value creation in Cusco’s touristic economy. Andean women’s weaving labour and “living culture” performances are identified as central to the region’s tourism appeal, yet market dynamics and NGO interventions risk reproducing exoticised, gendered images of the traditional Andean woman. Development projects ostensibly designed to benefit indigenous women may inadvertently reinforce essentialised representations that limit women’s capacity to negotiate their own identities and economic positions.
Agritourism represents a potentially alternative modality of tourism-based development. Arroyo et al. (2019) examine agritourism initiatives in Cusco and neighbouring Puno, finding evidence that such programmes can psychologically, socially, politically, and economically empower rural women. Participants reported increased self-confidence, expanded social networks, and enhanced economic autonomy. However, Andean gender norms continue to limit women’s full benefits from these programmes, as domestic responsibilities, limited mobility, and male resistance constrain participation.
Institutional contexts and the micropolitics of gendered indigeneity
Beyond tourism and rural authority, institutional settings provide additional sites for examining how gender operates in contemporary Cusco. Van Vleet (2019) presents ethnographic analysis of a Cusco orphanage, examining how young indigenous mothers strategically perform gendered indigeneity in their interactions with institutional authorities. These performances involve complex negotiations of power, as women simultaneously collaborate with and subtly resist institutional expectations. The analysis reveals everyday micropolitics through which indigenous women exercise agency within structurally constrained circumstances.
This institutional ethnography illuminates how race, gender, and class intersect in specific organisational contexts to shape women’s experiences and opportunities. Indigenous mothers in the orphanage setting navigated expectations regarding appropriate femininity, maternal behaviour, and cultural identity, performing compliance when advantageous whilst finding spaces for resistance and self-assertion.
Structural inequalities and gender-based violence in Peru
Research specific to Cusco must be situated within broader Peruvian patterns of gender inequality and violence. National-level studies document persistent occupational segregation, with women concentrated in low-paid and unpaid care sectors despite significant educational gains. Beltrán et al. (2025) demonstrate that marriage and motherhood reinforce occupational segregation and gender norms, with women’s labour market participation shaped by family formation in ways that do not similarly affect men. These patterns limit women’s economic autonomy and perpetuate household-level gender hierarchies.
Civil society organisations, often assumed to embody progressive values, also exhibit gendered labour divisions. Diaz-Jiménez, Gutiérrez and Míguez (2022) find that women carry most welfare work within Peruvian social organisations, even where official discourses claim gender equality. This sexual division of labour reproduces broader societal patterns within organisations that might otherwise challenge gendered arrangements.
Gender-based violence represents perhaps the most urgent dimension of gender inequality in Peru. Zachariassen (2020) examines prevalence patterns and risk factors, linking high rates of violence to historical conflict, normalised violence, and institutional failures. Indigenous and poor women face disproportionate harm, reflecting intersecting inequalities of gender, race, and class. Historical memory of Peru’s internal armed conflict (1980-2000) may contribute to violence normalisation, whilst institutional responses remain inadequate to address prevention and survivor support.
Villa-Palomino (2023) reviews scholarship on Peruvian masculinities, documenting norms of male authority, control over women, and the use or threat of violence to maintain status. This literature reveals how hegemonic masculinity constructs violence as a legitimate tool for enforcing gender hierarchy, with implications for understanding both interpersonal violence and institutional responses to it.
Discussion
The literature examined in this dissertation reveals gender dynamics in Cusco as shaped by long Andean traditions, colonial legacies, tourism economies, and ongoing struggles for rights and recognition. Analysis of these findings illuminates how the research objectives have been addressed whilst highlighting significant patterns, tensions, and implications.
The first objective sought to trace historical development of gendered institutions from the Inca period onward. The evidence demonstrates that pre-Hispanic Cusco institutionalised gender as a fundamental organising principle, with women’s ritual labour essential to state legitimacy and political reproduction. The acllahuasi system reveals sophisticated Inca administration of female bodies, mobility, and productive capacity. Women’s positions combined centrality and control: their labour was indispensable yet their autonomy was systematically constrained. This pattern of essential-yet-subordinate female positioning represents a foundational dynamic that persists, in transformed guises, to the present.
Regarding the second objective concerning colonial transformations, the analysis demonstrates how Spanish colonisation fundamentally reconfigured Andean gender arrangements according to European moral frameworks. Colonial reimagining of acllas as cloistered virgins exemplifies broader representational strategies that folded indigenous institutions into morality politics justifying Spanish rule and gendered confinement. The transition to republican governance maintained racialised moral regulation of female sexuality, as evidenced by early twentieth-century rape trial analysis. These findings support understanding of contemporary gender dynamics as embedded within centuries-long trajectories of colonial and postcolonial power.
The third and fourth objectives address contemporary arenas of gender dynamics. Tourism emerges as the most significant contemporary site where gender, ethnicity, and class intersect in Cusco. The literature reveals a fundamental contradiction: tourism creates visible economic opportunities for indigenous women whilst simultaneously reinforcing subordinate positions within hierarchies controlled by male, urban, Spanish-speaking intermediaries. Quechua women’s labour generates the authentic cultural content that constitutes Cusco’s primary tourism attraction, yet value capture occurs disproportionately elsewhere in the production chain.
This contradiction illuminates how empowerment and subordination may coexist within the same economic arrangements. Agritourism programmes demonstrate that tourism-based development can generate psychological, social, political, and economic empowerment for rural women, yet Andean gender norms continue to limit full realisation of these benefits. The performance of tradition required by cultural tourism simultaneously provides income and recognition whilst potentially constraining women within essentialised representations of indigenous femininity.
The emergence of woman Varayoc represents perhaps the most significant challenge to entrenched patriarchal authority documented in recent scholarship. Women’s assumption of traditionally male authority positions demonstrates that gender arrangements in Andean communities are neither static nor impervious to change. These transformations occur through symbolic appropriation of traditional markers of power, suggesting that cultural legitimacy may be negotiated even whilst dominant norms are contested.
The fifth objective concerning broader Peruvian patterns situates Cusco-specific findings within national contexts of occupational segregation, persistent gender norms regarding marriage and motherhood, and high rates of gender-based violence. These structural factors shape the field within which local dynamics operate, constraining possibilities for gender equality even where specific initiatives demonstrate progress. Indigenous and poor women face compounded disadvantages reflecting intersections of gender, race, and class inequalities.
Critical analysis reveals several tensions within the scholarly literature. First, tension exists between agency and structure: ethnographic studies emphasise indigenous women’s strategic performances and resistance, whilst structural analyses document persistent inequalities that constrain individual action. Reconciling these perspectives requires understanding agency as exercised within and against structural constraints, neither wholly determined nor wholly free.
Second, tension exists between tradition and transformation: tourism economies simultaneously valorise and commodify tradition, creating economic incentives for cultural preservation that may limit women’s capacity to redefine their positions. The woman Varayoc phenomenon demonstrates that tradition itself may be transformed through strategic appropriation, yet such transformations face resistance from those invested in existing arrangements.
Third, tension exists between visibility and control: increased visibility of indigenous women in tourism and public authority does not automatically translate to increased power. Visibility may instead subject women to intensified scrutiny and regulation, as colonial histories of moral policing suggest.
These tensions have significant implications for policy and practice. Tourism development initiatives must attend to value distribution, ensuring that women benefit proportionately from the cultural labour they provide. Support for women assuming local authority positions requires addressing underlying gender norms that render such positions contested. Violence prevention must engage with masculinity norms that construct violence as legitimate enforcement of gender hierarchy.
Conclusions
This dissertation has analysed gender dynamics in Cusco, Peru, examining historical evolution and contemporary manifestations across multiple arenas of gendered power. The research objectives have been systematically addressed through comprehensive literature synthesis spanning archaeological, ethnohistorical, anthropological, and sociological scholarship.
The first objective, tracing historical development of gendered institutions, has been achieved through analysis of Inca-period acllahuasi systems, colonial moral regimes, and republican legal frameworks. The evidence demonstrates fundamental continuity in positioning women as essential yet controlled contributors to political and economic order, alongside significant transformations in the specific mechanisms and justifications for gendered arrangements.
The second objective, analysing colonial moral frameworks, has been met through examination of how Spanish colonisation reinterpreted indigenous institutions according to European categories, establishing patterns of racialised moral regulation that persisted into the republican period and continue to shape access to justice.
The third and fourth objectives, examining contemporary arenas and assessing empowerment possibilities, have been addressed through analysis of tourism economies, rural livelihoods, migration, and local authority. The findings reveal that contemporary developments offer genuine opportunities for women’s income generation, political participation, and social recognition, whilst simultaneously reproducing historical patterns of subordination through male control of economic intermediation, persistent gender norms, and commodification of tradition.
The fifth objective, situating Cusco within broader Peruvian patterns, has been achieved through examination of national-level occupational segregation, gender-based violence, and structural inequalities that shape the context within which local dynamics operate.
The significance of these findings extends beyond the specific Cusco context to illuminate broader questions concerning the intersection of gender, indigeneity, and development. The analysis demonstrates that gender operates not as an isolated variable but as embedded within multiple overlapping systems of power that must be addressed in their specificity and interconnection.
Future research might productively examine several directions. Longitudinal studies could track how woman Varayoc and similar phenomena evolve over time, assessing whether initial transformations consolidate into lasting change. Comparative analysis could examine how tourism-gender dynamics differ across Andean regions with varying levels of tourism development. Intersectional approaches could more systematically analyse how gender intersects with age, sexuality, and disability in shaping contemporary Cusqueñan experiences. Finally, participatory action research methodologies could engage indigenous women as co-researchers in identifying priorities and evaluating interventions.
The historical and contemporary analysis presented here demonstrates that gender equality in Cusco remains an ongoing struggle shaped by centuries of colonial and postcolonial power. Progress is evident in women’s expanding economic and political participation, yet structural constraints and cultural norms continue to limit full equality. Understanding these dynamics requires sustained attention to both historical legacies and contemporary transformations, recognising that the past continues to shape present possibilities whilst remaining open to the ways that strategic action can transform inherited arrangements.
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